Biography of Cotton Mather, Clergyman and Scientist

Cotton Mather was a Puritan clergyman in Massachusetts known for his scientific studies and literary works, as wells as for the peripheral role he played in the witchcraft trials at Salem. He was a highly influential figure in early America. As a leading scientific mind of his day, Mather was one of only two colonial Americans (the other being Benjamin Franklin) admitted to the prestigious Royal Society of London. Yet as a theologian, he also believed in non-scientific ideas, in particular the existence of witchcraft. Fast Facts: Cotton Mather Known For: Early American Puritan clergyman, scientist, and influential authorBorn: March 19, 1663 in Boston, MassachusettsDied: February 13, 1728, age 65Education: Harvard College, graduated 1678, received masters degree 1681Key Accomplishments: One of two American scientists named to prestigious Royal Society of London. Author of hundreds of works, ranging from pamphlets to massive works of scholarship and history. Early Life Cotton Mather was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on March 19, 1663. His father was Increase Mather, a prominent citizen of Boston and a noted scholar who served as the president of Harvard College from 1685 to 1701. As a boy, Cotton Mather was well educated, learning Latin and Greek, and was admitted to Harvard at the age of 12. He studied Hebrew and the sciences, and after receiving a degree at the age of 16, intended to pursue a career in medicine. At 19 he received a master’s degree, and he remained involved in the administration of Harvard for the rest of his life (though he was disappointed to never be asked to serve as its president). His personal life was marked by recurring tragedies. He had three marriages. His first two wives died, his third went insane. He and his wives had a total of 15 children, but only six lived to be adults, and of those only two outlived Mather. Minister In 1685 Cotton Mather was ordained in the Second Church in Boston. It was a prestigious institution in the city, and Mather became its pastor. From the pulpit his words carried weight, and he thus had considerable political power in Massachusetts. He was known to have opinions on just about any issues, and was not shy about expressing them. Title page of Cotton Mathers The Wonders of the Invisible World, a book on witchcraft.   Library of Congress / Getty Images When the notorious trials of accused witches began in Salem in the winter of 1692-93, Cotton Mather approved of them, and by some interpretations actively encouraged them. Eventually, 19 people were executed and many more jailed. In 1693 Mather wrote a book, Wonders of the Invisible World, which made the case for the supernatural, and seemed to be a justification for the events at Salem. Mather later recanted his views on the witch trials, eventually considering them to have been excessive and unjustified. Scientist Mather had a deep interest in science since his childhood, and as books about discoveries by scientists in Europe reached America, he devoured them. He also corresponded with scientific authorities in Europe, and though positioned in the American colonies, he managed to stay up to date with the works of men such as Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle. Over the course of his life, Mather wrote about scientific subjects including botany, astronomy, fossils, and medicine. He became an authority on common diseases, including scurvy, measles, fevers, and smallpox. One of the major contributions Cotton Mather made to science in early America was his support for the concept of vaccinations. He was attacked and threatened for advocating that the public receive vaccinations for smallpox (a disease which had killed some of his children). By 1720, he was the foremost American authority on vaccinations. Author Mather possessed boundless energy as a writer, and over the course of his life he published hundreds of works, ranging from pamphlets to hefty books of scholarship. Perhaps his most significant written work was Magnalia Christi Americana, published in 1702, which chronicled the history of the Puritans in New England from 1620 to 1698. The book also serves as something of a history of the Massachusetts colony, and it became a cherished and widely read book in early America. (The copy owned by John Adams can be viewed online.) Title page of Magnalia Christi Americana, by Cotton Mather. Cotton Mather / Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons   His writings show his typical wide range of interests. A book of essays, Political Fables, was published in 1692; Psalterium Americanum, a work in which he set the psalms to music, was published in 1718; and The Angel of Bethesda, a medical manual, was published in 1722. Bonifacius, Or Essays to Do Good, which Mather published in 1718, gave practical advice for doing good works. Benjamin Franklin credited the book as having influenced him as a youth. Legacy Cotton Mather died February 13, 1728, at the age of 65. By creating so many written works, Mather left an enduring legacy. He inspired Benjamin Franklin, who pursued simultaneous careers as writer, scientist, and political activist. And later American writers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Nathaniel Hawthorne all acknowledged debts to Cotton Mather. Sources: Cotton Mather. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 10, Gale, 2004, pp. 330-332. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Mather, Cotton. Colonial America Reference Library, edited by Peggy Saari and Julie L. Carnagie, vol. 4: Biographies: Volume 2, UXL, 2000, pp. 206-212. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

The Low Calorie Frozen Microwavable Industry Essay

Javan Gill Assignment 2: Operations Decision ECO 550 Dr. Bernadette West November 14, 2016 Market Structure The low-calorie frozen microwavable industry appears to function under a monopolistic competition market structure. Having, â€Å"a few dominant firms and a large number of competitive fringe firms† is one of the main factors that make a market monopolistic competition (Mcguigan, Moyer, Harris, 2014, p352). In this category of market structure the initial thing that should be done to evaluate the efficiency is to determine the alternatives to the diverse products. In this instance the products should be close, but not perfect replacements for each other. In the low-calorie foods industry there will always be related substitutions because it is centered on what an individual person craves and what they choose to consume. Next, company’s needs to explore what challenges lay ahead for the business to enter the market. If there are obvious obstacles that have no quick alternatives then there may be a different market structure. Finally, the company should inspect the prices and the size of its competitors. Prices fluctuate in this market, but still seems to have an unlimited capacity for low-calorie frozen microwaveable meals. The ultimate desire for each company is to have reasonable prices that will make consumers want to continuously buy its merchandises over others, but there is not one definite company that is setting the price. This is an indicationShow MoreRelatedThe Food And Drug Administration1585 Words   |  7 Pagesconcept to drive current and new customers to its particular microwavable frozen meals products. The microwavable frozen meals e.g. Healthy Choice, Lean Cuisine, Michelina s, etc. are occasionally healthier and/ or at times a better options for working families, individuals and society. 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The paper will then introduce whetherRead MoreA Plan For The Low Calorie, Frozen Microwaveable Food Company1414 Words   |  6 PagesOutline a plan that managers in the low-calorie, frozen microwaveable food company could follow in anticipation of raising prices when selecting pricing strategies for making their products response to a change in price less elastic. Provide a rationale for your response. Warren Buffett, the renowned financial investor has said, â€Å"The single most important decision in evaluating a business is pricing power (Frye Campbell, 2011) When a company has the ability and power to raise prices without losingRead MoreMonopolistic Competition Essay1784 Words   |  8 PagesAssignment 2: Operations Decisions Name Professor Course Aug 13, 2015 Low-calorie Frozen Food Industry Low –calorie foods are those with 40 calories or less per serving. The low calorie frozen foods is the choice for a healthy and easy to cook meal. There are several choices of low calorie frozen, microwaveable food products available in the market nowadays (Creasy, 2015). This implies that the market structure is somewhere between a monopolistic and oligopolistic competition, leaning more

Once More the Fallen Woman by Linda Nochlin free essay sample

Lost and Found: Once More the Fallen Woman By Linda Nochlin Linda Nochlin in â€Å"Lost and Found: Once More the Fallen Woman† points out how â€Å"fallen† in the male world means heroic inspiration for the most part but for women the term is applied to sexual activity out of wedlock, whether or not it is for her gain. It was often incorporated into writers and social critics’ work. This particular view was fascinating to nineteenth-century artists (in the middle years) especially in England. The theme was undertaken by Dante Gabriel Rossetti whose interest was so great almost to the point of obsession. He devoted a number of his poems and pictorial works to the subject. The painting, Found (unfinished), was devoted to the subject, occupied his time from 1853 until one year before he died. It was a work he could never put aside or resolve. Rossetti describes the picture to Holman Hunt on January 30, 1855 seemingly straight forward stating that it takes place in London at a street at dawn with lamps still lit. We will write a custom essay sample on Once More the Fallen Woman by Linda Nochlin or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A driver left his cart in the middle of the street and goes after a girl who has passed him wondering the streets. When he comes up to her and he recognizes her she immediately sinks onto her knees in shame against the wall of a raised churchyard in the foreground. The male stands and holds her hands, which he had to take deliberately, which he holds in bewilderment and half guarding her from self-hurt. Rossetti states that these are the main things in the picture which are to be called â€Å"Found† and for which his sister Maria has found him a lovely motto from Jeremiah that states. â€Å"I remember Thee, the kindness of youth, the love of thine espousals. The complete implications and significance of the work and its relationships are â€Å"anything but straight forward†. This can be best understood best through examining 19th Century perspectives. Rossetti makes ideological assumptions in his attempt to invent the secular image of the fallen woman. He, and many others who were trying to depict this theme at this time, use the contemporary issues and pressing social moral as his background for the assumptions made about the female in his picture. This Pre-Raphaelite interpretation is examined by Nochlin against another work by Holman Hunt titled Awakening Conscience, which may be considered paradoxically contradictory. Nochlin believes this painting was inspired by another art work by Rossetti. The sources and the formulation of the work Found will be examined and the work will be considered in accordance to the artist’s personal history and relation to the meanings. Lastly, Nochlin states she is to demonstrate that Rossetti, being a poet and a painter, treats this theme of fallen women in his poems as well but in no way are relevant to the facial expressions and structure of the work. Nochlin believes that these two do not necessarily explain each other. She also says that Rossetti’s strategies were that of his time and did not look out of his period to draw the subject in this pictorial mode that often is called â€Å"literary† which is no more literary than film. For being a poet there is nothing particularly poetic or literary about this work of art or even any different from his contemporaries. First is the consideration of the fallen woman in imagery which is critical to read the painting. The visual precedent of Hogarth and Blake (poet and painter as well) were in the background of any Pre-Raphaelite who was conscious of being both English and moral at the same time in painting themes. Hogarth’s view was to punish folly and sexuality and Blake had an apocalyptic view of innocence as corrupted by the greed and the great city. Both had been softened by sentimentality and humanitarianism. If a woman was to fall from this, she could always redeem herself through repentance and subsequent integration into the family. The role of the family as a rehabilitation was highly important as it either the foil of rehabilitation or as the instrument of it in the imagery of women in the 19th century. George Morland in his Laetitia series of 1789 demonstrated the down fall of an innocent country girl. In the Fair Penitent